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TIME-KEEPING    IN   PARIS. 


REPRINTED    FOR    DISTRIBUTION    BY   THE 
OBSERVATORY   OF   WASHINGTON    UNIVERSITY,    ST.    LOUIS. 


From   The  Popular  Science  Monthly,  January,  1882. 


BY 

EDMUND   A.   ENGLER. 


ST.  LOUIS: 
G.  I.  JONES  &  COMPANY. 


TIME-KEEPING    IN   PARIS. 


REPRINTED    FOR    DISTRIBUTION    BY  .THE 
OBSERVATORY   OF   WASHINGTON    UNIVERSITY,    ST.    LOUIS. 


From   The  Popular  Science  Monthly,  January,  1882. 


BY 

EDMUND   A.   ENGLER. 


ST.  LOUIS: 
G.  I.  JONES  &  COMPANY. 

1882. 


TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS. 


MANY  of  the  discoveries  of  science  which  at  the  time  are  regarded 
merely  as  refinements  —  very  interesting,  but  without  practical 
value  —  sooner  or  later  find  their  special  uses  in  supplying  wants  before 
unfelt.  It  is  but  one  of  the  evidences  of  the  advance  of  civilization  that 
exact  methods  of  dividing  and  measuring  time  are  now  in  demand,  not 
only  by  scientists  and  professional  men  as  formerly,  but  by  persons  in 
the  most  ordinary  pursuits  of  life.  To  railroad  men  and  watch-makers  as 
a  matter  of  necessity,  to  manufacturers  and  business  men  as  a  matter 
of  economy,  and  to  individuals  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  it  has  come 
to  be  highly  important  to  know  what  is  the  exact  time  of  day  to  the 
second,  in  circumstances  where  half  a  century  ago  it  would  have  quite 
sufficed  to  know  the  minute  or  even  the  hour.  This  may  be  due  to  the 
increased  value  of  time  when  measured  by  the  number  of  events  or  the 
magnitude  of  operations  which  modern  ingenuity  is  capable  of  crowding 
into  a  given  interval;  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  second  to-day 
records  a  greater  stride  in  the  world's  progress  than  did  many  hours  in 
the  days  of  our  ancestors.  Of  so  great  importance,  for  many  evident 
reasons,  has  the  knowledge  of  the  exact  time  become,  that  much  thought 
of  some  of  the  best  heads  has  been  devoted  to  methods  of  ascertaining 
it  and  making  it  available  by  distribution  for  public  use. 

The  methods  of  obtaining  the  exact  time  by  astronomical  observa- 
tions "have  long  been  well  established,  and  are,  except  in  minor  details, 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  will  here  be  sufficient  to  say,  in 
explanation  of  the  usual  method,  that  time  is  determined  by  observing 
the  transit,  over  the  meridian,  of  stars  —  or  other  heavenly  bodies  — 
whose  position  is  known  by  previous  calculation  verified  by  repeated 
observation.  The  difference  between  the  time  of  the  calculated  me- 
ridian passage  and  the  time  indicated  by  the  clock  when  the  star  was 
observed  to  pass  the  meridian  is  the  error  of  the  clock.     The  face- 


4  TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS. 

reading  of  the  clock  at  the  instant  of  transit  corrected  for  this  error  is 
the  exact  time  at  that  instant.* 

But  experience  has  shown  that  no  clock,  however  tine  its  mechanism, 
will  run  without  change  of  error ;  so  that,  although  for  a  particular 
instant  the  error  of  a  clock  is  known  by  astronomical  observation,  it  is 
bv  no  means  certain  what  will  be  its  error  for  any  subsequent  instant. 
Its  error  for  this  instant  can  be  determined  with  precision  only  by 
another  observation.  An  approximation  to  its  error  at  any  instant  can, 
however,  be  obtained  by  simple  calculation,  based  upon  two  assump- 
tions: First,  that  the  change  in  error  between  the  last  two  (or  anj- 
previous  two)  observations  w^as  uniformly  distributed  over  the  interval 
of  time  between  those  observations,  thus  making  it  possible  to  deter- 
mine a  rate  of  change;  second,  that  the  rate  of  change  in  error  since 


Fig.  1.  —  HKGri.vTOK  of  Paris  Oijseuvatoky 


ENDULUM  Contact-Plates. 


tlie  last  observation  has  been  uniformly  the  same  as  during  the  previous 
interval.     The  reliability  of   this   approximation    is    evidently  entirel}^ 


*  It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  say  tiiat  the  operation  of  taking  time  by  the  transit  instru- 
uieiit  is  really  far  more  complicated  than  would  appear  from  the  description  above;  but 
the  difficulties  arise  only  from  mechanical  or  physical  imperfections,  or  from  uncertain  or 
changing  conditions.  Thus,  corrections  must  always  be  made  in  nice  work  for  errors  in 
the  instrument  or  its  setting  — such  as  the  level,  azimuth,  and  coUimation  corrections  — 
for  personal  eciuation  of  the  observer,  and  for  aberration;  these  corrections,  however, 
only  aid  the  observer  in  ascertaining  the  exact  instant  when  the  star  actually  crossed  his 
meridian  and  do  not  in  any  way  affect  the  principle  already  given.  For  a  full  account 
of  the  methods  of  making  these  corrections,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Chauvenet's 
"  Astronomv." 


TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS. 


dependent  upon  an  empirical  knowledge  of  the  clock.     Cloudy  weather 
sometimes  makes  this  method  the  only  resource. 

In  order  that  a  clock  should  be  used  as  an  indicator  of  time,  it  is 
not  enough  that  its  error  at  ever}^  instant  should  be  known ;  its  error 
must  be  continually  corrected,  so  that  its  face-reading  shall  always 
indicate  true  time.  And  in  order  that  a  clock  should  be  used  as  a 
distributor  of  time,  it  must  be  provided  with  apparatus,  distinct  from 
the  mechanism  which  keeps  the  time  and  in  no  wa}^  interfering  with  it, 
wliich  is  capable  of  sending  time  to  other  clocks.  The  methods  and 
instruments  in  use  in  Paris  for  the  accomplishment  of  these  two  objects 
will  be  described  in  this  paper. 

At  the  Paris  Observatory  a  very  fine  standard  clock  or  astronomical 
regulator  is  kept  running  on  correct  mean  time  by  transit  observations, 
being  provided  with  the  most  approved  self- compensating  apparatus, 
and  being  further  corrected  daily  by  the  adjustment  of  weights  to  the  pen- 
dulum. For  the  latter  purpose 
the  pendulum-rod  is  provided 
with  a  box,  c  (Fig'.  1),  for  hold- 
ing small  weights,  these  are  made 
of  such  shape  that  they  can  be 
easily  put  into  the  box  or  taken 
out  by  means  of  a  small  pair  of 
pincers  without  in  any  way  af- 
fecting the  running  of  the  clock. 
The  box  being  placed  above  the 
centre  of  oscillation  of  the  pen- 
dulum, the  addition  of  a  weight 
makes  the  clock  go  faster  and 
the  removal  of  a  weight  retards 
it.  By  repeated  experiment 
it  has  been  ascertained  what 
change  each  weight,  under 
given  conditions  of  atmospheric 
influences,  will  produce  in  a 
given  time ;  so  that  the  oper- 
ator knows  how  to  adjust  the 
weights  in  ever}^  case,  and  the 
clock  can  be  kept  running  on 
mean  time  with  the  greatest  at- 
tainable accuracy.  yj«.  2. -pendulum  of  secondary  clock. 

This  clock,  beating  seconds,  closes  for,  say,  one-half  second  during 


C)  TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS. 

each  vibration  an  electric  circuit  along  the  line  of  which  the  secondary 
clocks  are  situated.  This  is  done  by  means  of  the  apparatus  shown 
at  the  top  of  Fig.  1.  To  the  upper  end  of  the  pendulnm-rod  are 
attached  arms,  V  and  V,  which  alternately  raise  the  levers,  i 
and  ^',  as  the  pendulum  "vibrates,  thus  closing  the  contact  of 
the  electric  circuit,  one  wire  of  wiiicli  reaches  the  arms  V  and  V\ 
while  the  other  is  attached  to  the  levers  i  and  i'.  There  are  three 
levers  at  ^  and  ?'',  and  three  contact  points  on  the  arms  V  and  T"', 
in  order  that  the  transmission  of  the  current  need  not  depend  upon  a 
single  contact  which  some  trivial  circumstance  —  as,  for  example,  the 
lodging  of  a  grain  of  dust  —  might  prevent. 

The  current  thus  transmitted  is  carried  along  wires  placed  in  the 
city  drains  to  the  secondary  clocks,  which  are  controlled  by  the  reg- 
ulator at  the  observatory,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2  ;  but  the  motive  power 
of  each  is  a  weight  operating  as  in  ordinary  clocks.  To  the  foot  of 
the  pendulum  of  each  secondary  clock  is  attached  a  piece  of  soft  iron, 
which  swings  just  above  the  poles  of  two  electro-magnets  in  the  circuit 
of  the  observatory  clock.  The  operation  is  as  follows:  The  secondary 
clocks  are  kept  running  with  a  very  small  gaining  rate.  At  each  vibra- 
tion of  the  pendulum  of  the  observatory  clock  the  circuit  is  closed, 
and  a  current  i)asses  from  a  battery  of  six  Daniel  cells  and  magne- 
tizes one  of  the  electro-magnets  at  the  foot  of  the  pendulum  of  each 
secondar}"  clock,  which,  attracting  the  piece  of  soft  iron,  retards  its 
motion.  The  adjustment  is  delicately  made,  so  that  the  retardation 
is  just  sufficient  to  keep  the  secondary  clocks  beating  s3^nchronously 
with  the  observatory  clock. 

This  system,  in  Paris  the  device  of  M.  Breguet,  is  a  modification  of 
the  Jones  system,  which  is  considered  by  scientists  the  best  ever  in- 
vented for  regulating  clocks  at  a  distance  from  the  standard  clock.  Its 
main  advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  by  no  disaster  to  the  wire  of  the 
circuit  or  to  the  regulator  of  the  system  can  the  secondary  clocks  l)e 
stopped.  Should,  by  any  accident,  the  wire  be  broken  or  the  observa- 
tory clock  stopped,  the  secondary  clocks  move  rij^ht  on,  only  slightly 
too  fast ;  whereas,  in  any  system  of  dials  which  are  driven  by  a  stand- 
ard clock,  any  such  mishap  must  of  necessity  stop  the  dials,  whereby 
those  depending  upon  them  for  time  are  misled,  if  not  entirely  de{)rived 
of  time.  In  point  of  accuracy  tlie  results  in  this  system  are,  indeed,  all 
that  could  be  desired,  tlu-  error  of  the  secondary  clocks  being  kept  less 
than  one-tenth  of  a  second  ;  but,  because  the  secondary  clocks  must  be 
line  time-keepers,  the  system  is  quite  expensive.  The  estimated  cost 
of  each  of  these  clocks  is  from, 2.  loo  to  2,500 .francs,  or  from  $4H0  to 


TIME-KKEPING    IN    PARIS. 


$500.     On  the  two  circuits,  each  terminating  at  both  ends  at  the  Obser- 
vatory vf  Paris,  there  are  clisti'ibuted  thirteen  clocks,  the  farthest  being 


Fig.  3.  —  Map  of  Paris.    The  two  circuits  from  the  Observatory  are  represented  by  heavy 
black  lines ;  the  lines  from  the  "  horary  centres  "  are  represented  by  dotted  lines. 

at  a  distance  of  seven  and  a  half  kilometres,  or  nearly  four  and  a  half 

miles  from  the  observatory.     The  clocks  are   furnished  with  second- 


8  TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS. 

hands,  and  are  placed  so  that  they  can  be  easily  seen  from  the  street, 
and  usall}^  in  prominent  positions.  The  system  is  entirely  nnder  muni- 
cipal management  and  has  been  in  successful  operation  for  about  four 
years. 

But  the  system  thus  far  described  is  the  basis  of  a  much  wider  distri- 
bution of  accurate  time ;  for  each  of  the  secondary  clocks  is  itself  pro- 
vided with  apparatus  by  means  of  which  it  sends  a  signal  every  hour 
to  clocks  placed  on  special  circuits  and  to  the  public  clocks  of  the  city. 
For  this  reason  the  secondary  clocks  have  come  to  be  known  as  "  hor- 
ary centres."  The  methods  employed  for  the  distribution  of  the  hourly 
signals  from  the  "horary  centres"  are  not  uniform,  nor  are  they  of 
equal  importance  or  extension ;  some  of  the  principal  watch-makers 
have  invented  methods  of  their  own  for  special  serv^ices,  which  are  not 
of  general  interest,  but  the  system  which  radiates  from  the  "horary 
centre"  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  (at  present  the  Tuileries)  to  the  twenty 
mairies  of  Paris  is  worthy  of  mention  here  both  on  account  of  its  im- 
portance and  ingenuity.  There  is  a  system  of  telegraph-wires  connect- 
ing all  the  mairies  of  the  city  with  the  Prefecture  of  the  Seine ;  the 
regulator  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  automatically  sends  a  current  into  tw^enty 
relays  at  precisely  one  hundred  seconds  before  the  end  of  each  hour, 
and  thus  cuts  these  wires  off  from  their  ordinary  telegraphic  duty  and 
places  them  in  the  circuits  of  the  different  mairies.  Then,  at  twelve 
seconds  before  the  end  of  the  liour,  the  regulator  sends  another  cur- 
rent into  the  circuit  of  the  mairies;  this  current  is  stopped  precisely 
at  the  end  of  the  hour.  At  each  mairie  the  clock  automatically  shuts 
off  the  wire  from  the  telegraph  and  connects  it  with  the  electro- 
magnet of  the  clock  at  sixty-five  seconds  before  the  end  of  each  hour, 
and  reverses  the  operation  at  five  seconds  after  the  end  of  the  hour. 
Ten  seconds  after  the  end  of  the  hour  the  first  current  from  the  regu- 
lator at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  automatically  stops,  and  the  wires  are  le- 
stored  to  the  telegraph.  The  clocks  at  the  mairies^  being  thus  cor- 
rected every  hour,  run  with  very  small  error;  but,  should  for  any 
reason  the  error  become  large,  or  the  clock  stop,  this  is  iudicntcd 
automatically  by  the  fact  that  the  current  fioni  the  "horary  centre," 
instead  of  stopping  precisely  at  twelve  o'clock,  continues  for  thirty 
seconds,  ^^y  this,  the  operator  at  once  knows  iliat  liis  clock  is  wrong, 
nnd  can  have  it  set  right.  From  the  otiier  ••  horary  centres  "  the  num- 
ber of  lines  is  in  no  case  larger  than  six,  the  lines  are  shorter,  and  the 
apparatus  accordingly  simpler. 

But  there  is  another  novel  and  inui-nious  iiu'tliod  t'oi-  the  distribution 
of  time  in  use  in  I'aiis.  wiiich,  thoiii;ii  hickiiiu-  in  accuracy  sufficient  for 


TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS, 


scientific  purposes,  has  both  convenience  and  economy  to  recommend  it 
for  general  uses,  and  for  that  reason  has  become  quite  extensively  em- 
ployed in  a  short  time.     Abandoning  electricity  as  an  uncertain  means 


for  moving  clock-work   at   a  distance,  the  inventors  of    this    system, 
Messrs.  Popp  and  Resch,  have  accomplished  the  same  object  by  the  use 


10  TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS. 

of  compressed  air,  and  for  this  reason  have  called  their  clocks  ' '  inieu- 
raatic  clocks."  They  were  exhibited  at  the  Exposition  at  Vienna  in 
1875,  and  are  now  widely  distributed  in  that  citj^ 

The  essential  parts  of  the  system  are  three :  1.  Machinery  whose 
function  it  is  to  compress  the  air,  and  to  propel  impulses  of  the  same 
ever}'  minute  ;  2.  Pipes  led  through  the  streets  and  into  the  houses  ;  3. 
Dials  provided  with  mechanism  for  receiving  the  pneumatic  impulses. 

1.  At  a  central  point  a  steam-engine  drives  pumps  wiiich  compress 
air  to  five  atmospheres  in  a  reservoir  holding  eight  cubic  metres.  This 
compressed  air  is  sent,  by  means  of  a  special  regulator,  into  a  second 
receiver  called  tlie  "  distributing  reservoir,"  where  the  pressure  is  kept 
constant  at  seven-tenths  of  an  atmosphere,  or  a  little  less  —  a  pressure 
determined  empiricall}^  to  be  sufficient  to  move  the  dials.  The  "dis- 
tributing reservoir  "  is  opened  to  transmit  an  impulse  into  the  pipes  each 
minute,  for  about  twenty  seconds,  by  a  distributing  clock  (Fig.  4). 
This  consists  of  two  distinct  movements.  The  one  to  the  left,  provided 
with  balance-wheel,  counter- weights,  etc.,  is  simply  an  ordinary  clock,' 
and  indicates  the  hour,  minute,  .and  second,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
The  movement  to  the  right  is  contrived  especially  for  moving  the  dis- 
tributing valve,  R.  This  valve,  ingeniously  arranged  in  such  a  way  that 
the  pressure  acts  only  on  a  minimum  of  its  surface,  is  inclosed  in  a 
valve-box  and  has  three  orifices.  The  first  of  these  puts  the  valve  in 
communication  with  the  ' '  distributing  reservoir ; ' '  the  second  puts  it 
in  communication  with  the  street-pipes ;  and  the  third  puts  the  pipes 
in  communication  with  the  atmosphere.  The  first  orifice  is  always 
open ;  the  other  two  are  normally  closed.  The  automatic  escape  of 
the  lever  G,  at  the  end  of  each  minute,  moves  the  slide-valve,  opens 
the  second  orifice,  and  sends  an  impulse  into  the  pipes ;  at  the  end  of 
a  imml)er  of  seconds,  determined  by  experience  and  dependent  on  the 
length  of  the  pipes  (a  number  which  varies  from  ten  to  fifteen  sec- 
onds), the  slide-valve  is  brought  back  to  its  original  position  by  the 
clock-work,  closes  the  two  orifices,  and  allows  the  extra  pressure  which 
has  been  introduced  to  escape  into  the  air.  This  operation  is  repeated 
every  minute.  The  motive-power  for  the  clock-work  of  both  move- 
ments is  furnished  by  the  comi)ressed  air,  which  automatically  lifts  the 
pistons  in  the  cylinders,  C,  at  the  end  of  each  minute.  The  pistons 
move  the  levers  B  and  A;  the  first  of  these,  B,  winds  up  the  coun- 
ter-weights as  much  as  they  have  fallen  during  the  preceding  minute ; 
the  second.  A,  imparts  motion  to  the  slide-valve. 

2.  The  impulse  given  by  the  clock-work  is  distributed  through  the 


TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS. 


11 


city  by  means  of  pipes  laid  like  ordinary  gas-pipes.  In  the  streets  tlie 
pipes  are  of  iron,  and  have  a  diameter  of  twenty-seven  millimetres 
(about  one  inch)  ;  but  in  the  houses  the  pipes  are  of  lead,  and  of  dif- 
ferent sizes  —  the  diameters  being  fifteen,  six,  or  three  milUmetres 
(practical^  one-half,  one-quarter,  or  one-eighth  of  an  inch),  depend- 
ing on  the  number  and  size  of  the  dials  to  be  operated.  These  pipes 
are  entirely  hidden  from  view,  and  in  no  way  interfere  with  the  appear- 
ance of  the  dials.  ' 

3.  The  mechanism  of  each  dial,  whatever  the  size,  is  shown  in  essen- 
tial part  in  Fig.  5.  A 
leather  or  rubber  flap, 
seen  in  the  cylinder,  re- 
ceives the  impulse  as  it 
comes  from  the  pipe  and 
moves  a  piston,  which 
acts  upon  a  lever-arm 
arranged  by  simple  con- 
nections to  move  the 
minute-hand  one  space 
forward.  The  ordinary 
clock-gearing  (not  shown 
in  the  figure)  secures  the 
proper  motion  for  the 
hour-hand.  This  part  of 
the  apparatus  can  be  in- 
closed in  any  case  —  as  plain  or  as  ornamental  as  desired.  The  cases 
are  made  in  all  the  designs  and  sizes  of  ordinary  clocks,  and  appear 
precisely  like  them,  except  that  the  minute-hands  jump  suddenly  over 
one  space  at  the  end  of  each  minute,  and  remain  stationary  during  the 
minute,  instead  of  moving  gradually  over  the  space. 

All  the  machinery  of  the  system  is  in  duplicate,  for  use  when  repairs 
are  needed.  Delicate  manometers  indicate  the  pressure  at  all  times, 
and  the  most  approved  electric  apparatus  is  used  to  indicate  the  par- 
ticular point  at  which  a  defect  has  occurred.  A  skilled  engineer  is  on 
the  watch  at  all  times.  Provision  is  also  made  so  that,  in  case  of  any 
interruption  in  the  regulator,  the  dials  may  be  run  by  hand.  Accuracy 
of  time  is  secured  by  daily  comparison  with  the  observatory  clock. 

Excellent  as  the  system  is  for  general  uses,  the  pneumatic  dials  can- 
not be  used  for  accurate  time-work,  because  it  requires  in  the  extremje 
case  —  namely,  for  a  distance  of  twenty  thousand  metres  —  at  least  ten 


Fig.  5. —  Mechanism  of  a  Pneumatic  Dial. 


12  TIME-KEEPING    IN    PARIS. 

seconds  for  the  impulse  to  reach  its  destination.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  each  dial  is  slow  a  certain  number  of  seconds,  depending  upon  its 
distance  from  the  central  station ;  nor  has  it  been  found  that  the  error 
of  any  particular  dial  is  constant.  But  the  error  will  never  be  allowed 
to  exceed  ten  seconds.  Should  the  extension  of  the  system  require  it, 
Paris  will  be  divided  into  six  districts  (surveyed  so  that  no  point  in  the 
city  shall  be  over  twenty  thousand  metres  from  a  central  station),  each 
provided  with  its  central  station  equipped  in  other  respects  as  the  one 
described,  but  all  receiving  their  compressed  air  from  a  common 
reservoir  centrally  located. 

However,  there  are  plenty  people  in  Paris,  as  there  are,  doubtless, 
in  ever}^  city,  for  whom  a  time  even  ten  seconds  in  error  is  accurate 
enough.  The  system  was  put  into  operation  there  about  March  15, 
1880,  and  in  the  first  four  months  there  were  fifteen  hundred  subscrib- 
ers, distributed  in  six  hundred  houses.  The  popularity  of  the  pneu- 
matic clocks  is  due  to  their  convenience  and  cheapness.  The  rental  is 
only  five  centimes  (one  cent)  per  day  for  the  first  clock ;  four  centimes 
(eight  mills)  per  day  for  the  second  clock;  three  centimes  (six  mills) 
per  day  for  the  third  and  every  subsequent  clock  rented  by  the  same 
person ;  and  the  expense  of  pipes  and  apparatus  is  borne  by  the  com- 
pany. 


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14  DAY  USE 

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